Technology

Linux kernels are monolithic by nature. They have a set of drivers already preinstalled on dispatch.  However there can be new devices such as a WiFi Adapter or  Bluetooth Speaker which cannot be paired to the operating system. Now we have two solutions for this.  Either start from scratch, edit and compile the entire kernel. This can be time consuming as even a high configuration system can take 15 to 18 minutes just to debug. For a business this is not viable, unless paid by the hour.  The other is to write a specific module (driver) which can be inserted into the kernel, during runtime. The whole process will take less than 5 minutes. This module is known as Linux Kernel Modules or LKM.   Uses LKM are used for creating new device drivers or file systems and network packet tracking. The latter is particularly useful in developing firewalls, Intrusion detection system (IDS) or Intrusion prevention system (IPS).   Prerequisite To create a module, we need to...

    This is a term used to describe a cyber attack where a hacker acts as middleman, during data transfer between user and an application. The app can be a financial or an E commerce website, Software as a Service (SaaS) etc. The hacker can intercept data passed via the browser to the website, and collect sensitive information such as account and credit card details, user login etc. To put it into context, it is like a postman who reads all the letters addressed to you, then reseals the same, on delivery. This way no one suspects a foul play.   Interception This is the first phase of the attack. Here the hacker establishes a connection with the target device whether a PC, Laptop or Smart phone. This is done   through various methods   like   Free WiFi  : Here a WiFi hot spot is set up  which is not password protected. When a user logs in to the network, they are in essence connecting to the hacker's system. Now any data transfer occurs via this co...

       We are entering the era of Internet of Things (IoT) devices, where each device connects remotely to one another, and the world wide web. This makes them smart in the way of integration to Artificial Intelligence, Machine learning and Data analysis. There are number of network protocols that facilitate this peer to peer communication be it ZigBee, Matter etc. More on that later.    What is Bluetooth  Invented  in 1994 by Ericsson and widely used, Bluetooth allows for short distance communication, within 10 meter radius. The data speed is between 1 Mbps and 3 Mbps. The bandwidth is in the range of 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz.   Frequency Hopping Unfold Spectrum This is the underlying tech used in Bluetooth. Data signals by default have low frequency, and high bandwidth. This makes them prone to distortion, affecting long distance transmission. Also the receiving antennas  have to be large in size which is a limitation for mobile phone...

  Imagine driving home after a long day of work. En route the car instructs the residence to automatically turn on the lights, prepare a hot bath, and download the latest Netflix series. While this may seem like a line from a SciFi script, the future is more realistic than ever. Welcome to the world of IoT or Internet of Things. Though not as popular as its famous counterpart, Artificial Intelligence, its penetration into the consumer market is indeed extensive. What is IoT...... It is the term used to describe a   device, or set of devices which are connected to the internet,   and also communicate with each other. They can share data obtained from various sensors to a central hub, analyze it using  AI, and take appropriate actions. For example, a smart thermostat can read the room temperature, analyze the same, and adjust the heating system without any human intervention. Another example would be a smart camera which provides video footage when a movement is detect...

  The debate...   Windows or Linux, which is better. The debate has been going on for eons now. The die hard fans of each sing praise of their respective OS, but there needs to be an unbiased view to get a complete picture. The beginning Here Microsoft takes the lead with the entry  before the internet era. Comparitively, Linux is considered a new kid on the block. Windows is based on Windows NT kernel while Linux is based on Unix. Yes, the same kernel used on Mac. Coming to the core topic. Security is paramount in the   modern digital era given the rise of   cyber crime. Here   linux ups the game .   Here are   some features that   strengthens the same Open Source  Linux kernel is free, and anyone can download and make changes according to preferences. There are different versions available, popular being Ubuntu, Kubuntu, Fedora, Mint and Kali. The benefit is that multiple developers work on the same system to resolve bugs and zero day ...

With the advent of digital age, we are more connected than ever. Social media has transcended geographical locations, and no place is out of reach. But with this type of connectivity, there is a rise in the number of antisocial players. Cyber stalking cases has reportedly gone high in recent years.  Stalking is considered as any form of unwanted attention, contact or harassment directed towards an individual. This results in victim's personal space being encroached or taken for granted.  The preparator perform stalking through fake profiles, monitoring social media sites, messages or chat history. They initiate a volley of hate speech or try to tarnish their victim's reputation. Here stalking can be also a form of love addiction. An unrequited love can cause the stalker to perform the above steps as an act of revenge. Mode of Operation Installing a piece of code in the victim's computer for accessing the webcam. The spyware comes bundled with a software which could be do...

There is currently a clash between two main processors, Intel and AMD. Both do bring a fresh perspective, in their respective domains. So how can we choose a processor brand, based on our use priorities. Intel Stands for Integrated Electronics  and is credited for creating the first processor, Intel 8086. The family tree of the same is credited with higher performance, faster clock speed but, more power consumption AMD Stands for Advanced Micro Devices providing affordability and security. Though a late comer, AMD focused on budget friendly, low power consumption chips. What is Clock Speed A CPU is the brain of any computer and determines the rate at which complex operations are processed.  A chip consists of billions of transistors which are opened and closed n number of times during a cycle. This is a benchmark for speed, known simply as Clock Cycle .  The measuring unit is Hertz (Hz). 1 Hz equals to 1 cycle per second. For Example, a 3.2 GHz processor comple...

  Privacy is a major concern when browsing the internet. Your data could be eavesdropped by hackers, companies targeting ads or even rogue state actors. What gets revealed would be personal browsing history, location monitoring, IP addresses to name a few. Enter the tech... Virtual Private Network or simply known as VPN is a technology used to prevent unauthorized access of your private data. Even if a hacker penetrates the network and get hold of data packets, all that is revealed is gibberish.  This is because all the information that passes through your device is encrypted and can be only revealed through a personal key.  Internet Service Provider Before going further, a knowledge of Internet Service Provider (ISP) is needed. They are the backbone of the World Wide Web. ISP provides each device with a unique IP (Internet Protocol) address, bandwidth allocation and network security. When a website is searched, first it goes from your device to the Router or Modem which...

Operating system (OS) is the heart of any computer device controlling tasks like process scheduling, memory management, and driver implementation. There is a large difference between OS used in main frame or desktop computers, and embedded systems Embedded Systems An embedded system is a miniature computer used to perform a single task. This could be a medical device monitoring heartbeat, or a flight control system. Because of size constraints, the processing power as well as memory/storage capacity is less for the same.  Enter the brain Embedded Linux is a stripped-down version of the original Linux kernel, used in desktops. What makes it different is its capability to run in low power embedded systems, such as smart phones, tablets, medical equipment and avionics system. This OS is a classification of RTOS (Real time operating systems). It means they process data in real time mostly from sensors measuring humidity or temperature, and provide output within a fixed deadline   ...

  If hardware is the body... Then software is the brain controlling the tasks and operations behind the scenes. It provides memory management, task allotment, priority scheduling etc. Operating system or OS is mainly divided into two main categories Real Time Operating Systems (RTOS) or General-Purpose Operating Systems (GPOS) . The classification is based on how they allocate resources The difference GPOS is used in desktop, laptops, tablets or smart phones where the processor performs several tasks at once. Here deadline for a given process is not important, and small delays are overstepped. RTOS is used in embedded systems such as medical equipment, flight avionics etc where one task is processed at any given time. Here deadline needs to be met without compromise, and data inputs are computed in real time. GPOS are usually used in microprocessors which have high computation power and voltage requirements. Examples include Intel x86/64 and AMD Ryzen chips RTOS are used in microco...

The M series chip in MacBooks have brought about a revolution. Now we have processors providing higher speed, with lower battery usage. No wonder we hear ARM based laptops running 18 to 24 hours, on a single charge. This has even disrupted legacy chips like x86/x64 from market monopoly. Behind the Scenes All this is made possible by a chip architecture known as RISC. The acronym for Reduced Instruction Set Computer .  As the name suggests, here less is more. Lower instruction set leads to less complexity and higher performance. Data is stored in registers and executed result in memory. The Cycle Every instruction execution goes through the following stages Instruction fetch: In this stage, the processor fetch code for execution, from registers Instruction decode: The code is then decoded, and analyzed Operand fetch: The operands required is retrieved from registers Instruction execution: The code is executed by the processor. Result storage: The final data is stored in register or ...

  When we hear the term computer worm, it is sometimes classified to a virus. Though sharing similar traits, they are completely different in their mode of infection and operation. A computer virus usually gains entry through a file or attachment. Once inside, they need to be activated by the user. This is done by opening the infected file or executing it. A worm, though mode of entry is the same, does not require user assistance. They infect and replicate completely autonomous. Mode of Entry File sharing : Disguised as non-suspicious media files, they spread through sharing sites like Torrent. Social media : Appears as interesting links, they prompt the user to click and download. Phishing : Spreads via email attachments, usually from a contact whose system has been infected. Zero-day exploits : Sometimes the operating system has some bugs or security weakness which gets compromised. External devices : Infected portable hard disc or USB drive       Symptoms Low...

  Firewall forms the first defense against malware attack on a system. It acts as a security guard scrutinizing inbound/outbound traffic from the web. ACL (Access List) The earlier adoption to firewall, they resided in the main router.  We know data passes digitally in the form of individual packets. They contain information such as source/destination address, data type, bandwidth etc. ACL would compare each packet to a set of predefined rules, mainly in ascending order (rule1, rule 2...). If a match is found, the connection is allowed, and no further check is done. If no rule is adhered, the packet is discarded.  But this provided only basic filtering, and ACL did not care about protocol type like http or https .  Also, once the rules were set, it cannot be redefined. To edit one would be to clear the existing set and start from scratch. The era begins ... Present firewall came into existence during the late 80s, and graphical user interface (GUI) in the 90s.  ...

W hen we buy a new computer, the performance is top of the world. This is true even in case of low budget options. But as time passes, the system becomes sluggish. Browsing the web becomes a herculean task. Webpages do not load easily, and online videos keep buffering.    The above case can be due to many factors, most of which can be rectified easily.  1. Buildup of Temporary files/Cookies Whenever you browse the internet, websites you frequently visit stores, some data in your computer. This is in the form of temporary files and cookies .  Temporary files include scripts, images and cached resources that help load webpages faster, on recurrent visits.   Cookies are used to store user preferences such as themes and language settings. They are also used for targeting specific ads. Over time there will be a buildup of all these files, slowing the browser considerably. To clear these files, type " Delete browsing history " in Search Panel present in Taskbar (...